# Lecture 008

Extended Church-Turing Thesis: all reasonable models of computation are equivalent with respect to polynomial-time computability

The Random-Access Machine (RAM) model:

• $+, -, *, /, <, >$: takes 1 step for small numbers

• small number: the value of the number bounded by a polynomial of input length ($y$ is small iff $(\exists k \in \mathbb{N})(y \in O(n^k))$ where $n$ is input length)
• index memory access: 1 step

Asymptotic Complexity: Big-$O$, Big-$\Omega$, $\varTheta$.

Big-$O$: $f(n) \in O(g(n))$ (little-$o$ has its own meaning)

• For $f : \mathbb{R}^+ \rightarrow \mathbb{R^+}$

• For $g : \mathbb{R}^+ \rightarrow \mathbb{R^+}$

• If $(\exists C, n_0 > 0)(\forall n \geq n_0 > 0)(f(n) \leq Cg(n))$

// Exercise (Practice with big-O) // Exercise (Logarithms vs polynomials)

Big-$\Omega$: $f(n) \in \Omega(g(n))$ (little-$\omega$ has its own meaning)

• For $f : \mathbb{R}^+ \rightarrow \mathbb{R^+}$

• For $g : \mathbb{R}^+ \rightarrow \mathbb{R^+}$

• If $(\exists c, n_0 > 0)(\forall n \geq n_0 > 0)(f(n) \geq cg(n))$

// Exercise (Practice with big-Omega)

$\varTheta$: $f(n) = \varTheta(g(n))$

• For $f : \mathbb{R}^+ \rightarrow \mathbb{R^+}$

• For $g : \mathbb{R}^+ \rightarrow \mathbb{R^+}$

• If $f(n) \in O(g(n)) \land f(n) \in \Omega(g(n))$

• If $(\exists c, C, n_0 > 0)(\forall n \geq n_0 > 0)(cg(n) \leq f(n) \leq Cg(n))$

Logarithms in different bases: $\log_b n = \frac{\log_2 n}{\log_2 b} = \varTheta(\log n)$ since $\frac{1}{\log_2 b} \log_2 n \leq \frac{\log_2 n}{\log_2 b} \leq \frac{1}{\log_2 b} \log_2 n$

• note that the log base will matter if it is in exponent ($\vartheta(n^{log_2 5}) \neq \vartheta(n^{log_3 5})$)

// Exercise (Practice with Theta)

Length of Input: how many keyboard strikes to write down one number in base 2. (if single input then the length of binary encoding; if array then number of elements.)

Worst-Case Running Time: on algorithm $A$, $T_A: \mathbb{N} \rightarrow \mathbb{N}, T_A (n) = \max(\text{steps})$ where $n = \text{len}(x)$

Constant Time: $T(n) \in O(1)$ Logarithmic Time: $T(n) \in O(\log n)$

• logarithmic-time algorithm can't read all of its input

Linear Time: $T(n) \in O(n)$ Quadratic Time: $T(n) \in O(n^2)$ Polynomial Time: $(\exists k \in \mathbb{N})(T(n) \in O(n^k))$ Exponential Time: $(\exists k \in \mathbb{N})(T(n) \in O(2^{n^k}))$

$\mathtt{P}$: complexity class of a set of language in polynomial time.

Subroutine: if the one routine has work $f(n)$, then it can only produce string of length $cf(n)$.

Algorithmic complexity: asymptotic complexity of one algorithm that computes the problem Intrinsic complexity: asymptotic complexity of most efficient algorithm that computes the problem (may not be well defined by well ordering property)

// Exercise (TM complexity of {0𝑘1𝑘:𝑘∈ℕ}) // Exercise (Is polynomial time decidability closed under concatenation?)

• keep adding one: $\Omega(2^n)$

• elementary addition: $Omega(n)$

Multiplication:

• elementary multiplication, division: $O(len(A) \times len(B))$

• Can do $T(n) \in O(n^{1+\epsilon})$ for any $\epsilon > 0$

• Fastest Known: Harvey, Hoeven (2019) $n\log{n}$

// Exercise (251st root)

Matrix Multiplication

• World Record (2020): O(n^{2.37285}) by Josh Alman, Virginia Williams

Exponential Time Cost in Universe: trade time with energy

• speeding up calculation generates more exponential heat

• travel in speed of light requires energy

// TODO: Check Your Understanding

## Sutner's Lecture

### Resource Bounds

Friedman's $\alpha$: not actual computations on digital computer

Physical Constraints: time, space, energy

• reversible computation does not dissipate energy

• in principle, not all computation costs

Acceptance Language: $L(M) = \{x \in \Sigma^* | C_x^{\text{init}} \xrightarrow[M]{}C^{yes}\}$

• Acceptor: two halt states $q_Y, q_N$ and one work tape and one input tape. Acceptor is decider.

### Complexity

Time Complexity: $T(x)_T = t \iff C_x^{\text{init}} \xrightarrow[M]{}C^{Y} \lor C^{N}$ (where $T(x)$ is always defined because we only interested in decision problems)

Worst Case Complexity: $T_M(n) = \max(T_M(x) | x \text{ has size } n)$

Algorithm Analysis: practical algorithms using register machines, random access machines as one step Complexity Theory: using Turing Machines as one step

• Note: turing machines with different tapes have different complexity for algorithms

• Under reasonable assumptions, the speed-up on a more realistic machine model versus a plain Turing machine is only a low-degree polynomial

Speed-up Theorem: one can always make linear speed up by reading 2 alphabets in one step

Time Complexity Class: $TIME(f) = \{L(M) | M \text{ is a TM}, T_M(n) \in O(f(n))\}$ Family of Time Complexity Class: $TIME(F) = \bigcup_{f \in F}TIME(f)$

• $\mathtt{P} = TIME(\text{poly})$: polynomial time

• $\mathtt{EXP}_k = \bigcup TIME(2^{cn^k} | c > 0)$: k-th order exponential time

• $\mathtt{EXP} = \bigcup EXP_k$: full exponential time

• $\mathtt{EEXP} = \bigcup TIME(2^{2^{n^c}} | c > 0)$: doubly exponential time

• $TIME(\alpha)$: Friedman's self-avoiding words function

### Trackability

Transducers: read-only input tape, write-only output tape, working tape. For combinging and pipelining algorithms.

Property of Complexity Class:

• closed under composition for some classes: output length are polynomial(linear, logarithmic) length by algorithm polynomial(linear, logarithmic). This is true because polynomials are closed under substitution.

Why We Use Polynomial as Actually Computable

• We can always figure out constant (except for Robertson-Seymour Theorem for graph minors)

• a natural problem, if is polynomial, constants and polynomial power are often small

### Arguing About $\mathtt{P}$

dijkstra:

Knuth's Lament: In order to raise asymptotic complexity by small amount, one would sacrefice constant factors a lot to the point they are practically inefficient.

### Space Constraints

Space Complexity Class: $SPACE(f) = \{L(M) | M \text{ is a TM}, T_M(n) \in O(f(n))\}$ Family of Space Complexity Class: $SPACE(F) = \bigcup_{f \in F}SPACE(f)$

• Constant Space ($SPACE(1)$) is equivalent to DFA

• Theorem: $SPACE(\log\log n)$ is the same as constant space.

### Hierarchy of Complexity Class

Trade off between time and space

• To use space, we have to use time: $TIME(f) \subseteq SPACE(f)$

• Trade off: $f(n) \geq \log n \implies SPACE(f(n)) \subseteq TIME(2^{O(f(n))})$

• We know how many configuration it can be for a halt machine. Therefore, we can bound time by space.

Time Power: Let $f$ be time constructible, $g(n) = o(f(n))$, then $TIME(g(n)) \subsetneq TIME(f(n)\log f(n))$

Space Power: Let $f(n) \geq \log n$ be space constructible, $g(n) = o(f(n))$, then $SPACE(g(n)) \subsetneq SPACE(f(n))$

Table of Content