Facts:
set of TMs T is countable, implies set of decidable language D countable (by M \twoheadrightarrow L(M) and |D|\leq|T|)
\mathcal{P}(\Sigma^*) is uncountable.
Undecidable:
HALTS = \{\langle{M, x} | M \text{ is a TM which halts on input x}\rangle\} // Exercise: Diagonalization argument for undecidability, Diagonalizing Primitive Recursive Functions
ACCEPTS = \{\langle{M, x} | M \text{ is a TM that accepts the input x}\rangle\}
EMPTY = \{\langle{M} | M \text{ is a TM with } L(M) = \emptyset \rangle\}
EQ = \{\langle{M_1, M_2} | M_1, M_2 \text{ are TMs with }L(M_1) = L(M_2) \rangle\}
EMPTY-HALTS = \{\langle{M} | M \text{ is a TM and } M(\epsilon) \text{ halts} \rangle\} // Exercise: Practice with undecidability proofs
EMPTY = \{\langle{M} | M \text{ is a TM that accepts finitely many strings}\rangle\} // Exercise: Practice with undecidability proofs
Turing reduction: \leq_{T} In order to define it formally, we need to define Turing machines that have access to an oracle. (definition omitted)
// Exercise (Practice with reduction definition) // Exercise (Practice with reduction proofs)
Semidecidable languages: there is TM (not necessarily a decider) s.t. L(M) = L \subseteq \Sigma^*.
we allow loop if input is not in the semidecidable language
L_1, L_2 \text{ semidecidable } \implies L_1 \cup L_2, L_1 \cap L_2 \text{ semidecidable} // Exercise (Semidecidability is closed under intersection and union)
Co-semidecidable languages: if \bar{L} is semidecidable
// Exercise (HALTS is semidecidable)
Enumerator: a TM that when started with a blank input tape, outputs a list of strings, possibly with repetition, on a second output tape. An enumerator may run forever if it outputs an unbounded number of strings.
Recursively enumerable: exists enumerator E only outputs strings in L and eventually outputs every string in L.
// TODO: Check Your Understanding // TODO: High Order Bits
Universal TM (\mu): simulate turning machines
if input not a TM (not in language), assume \mu will not halt
polynomial slowdown
small UTM: only 2 state, 5 symbol
Subsequence: A is subsequence of B if you can erase some of A to get B. [abc] is a subsequence of [cbabbabcac] but [ccb] is not.
x[i] = x_ix_{i+1}...x_{2i}
Self-avoiding: if for all a \leq i < j \leq |x|/2, block x[i] is not a subsequence of block x[j]
for alphabet of any finite size, there are only finitely many self-avoiding words.
\alpha(k) = \max(|x| | x\in \Sigma^*_k, x \text{ self-avoiding})
\alpha is computable, strictly increasing, really fast
\begin{cases} B_1(x) = 2x\\ B_{k+1}(x) = B_k^x(1)\\ \end{cases}
Diophantine Equations: P(x_1, x_2, ... x_n) = 0
Theorem: wether integer solutions of Diophantine equation exists is undecidable
x^2 + y^2 - z^2 = 0 is easy
x^k + y^k - z^k = 0 is hard, solutions only exist for k=1, 2
Theorem: Tailing Problem is undecidable
\zeta(s) = \sum_{n\geq 1}n^{-s} = 1/1^s + 1/2^s + 1/3^s +... where Re(s)>1
Riemann Hypothesis: all non-real roots s of this function have Re(s) = 1/2
Claim: M halts iff RH is false.
Oracle Machine: can solve any math problem and decide whether element x is in A \subseteq \mathbb{N} for all A.
Oracle Process: a normal TM write a number on tape, and enter q_{query} give it to oracle machine. Oracle machine look at the tape and force normal TM to enter either q_N or q_Y.
Oracle Turing Machine (o-machine): normal TM who can access to oracle machine.
define A-computable, A-decidable, A-semidecidable where A is a variable
when A = \emptyset, \mathbb{N}, \text{Prime} (any any other decidable sets), then the machine is the same as TM.
when A = K where K is the set of all halting TM, then (\forall W \in \mathbb{N}) (W \text{ is semidecidable } \implies W \leq_T K). Every semidecidable set W is K-decidable
Turing Reducibility: B \leq_{t} A (B can be reduced to A)
Hardness and Completeness:
A \text{ is } \mathcal{C}\text{-hard} \iff \forall (B \in C)(B \leq_T A) (A is the hardest problem in C, or harder than every C)
A \text{ is } \mathcal{C}\text{-complete} \iff \forall (B \in C)(B \leq_T A \land A \in C) (A is the hardest problem in C)
Note: Halt is Semidecidable-Complete (R.E.-complete).
Flaw: we want A \leq_T B \land B \in C \implies A \in C, but \bar{A} \leq_T A, and complement of HALT is not Semidecidable. So definition does not work for C = \text{ semidecidable}
Many-one reducible: A \leq_m B \iff (\exists \text{ computable } f:\mathbb{N} \rightarrow \mathbb{N})(x\in A \iff f(x) \in B) (A is many-one reducible to B if when asking A if x belongs to a set, A manipulate x using f and return B(f(x)))
A \leq_m B \implies A \leq_t B
A \leq_m B \land B \text{ decidable } \implies A \text{ decidable}
A \leq_m B \land B \text{ semidecidable } \implies A \text{ semidecidable}
Note: halting is many-one complete for the class of semidecidable sets
Church: "Effectively calculable (intuitively computable)" iff \lambda-definable
Church: "Effectively calculable (intuitively computable)" iff general recursive (\mu-recursive)
(Godel rejected proposals by Church)
Similarity in Models:
a space \mathcal{C} of possible configurations (finite length snapshots)
a "one-step" relation, that can be captured by P.R.
one unbounded search on P.R. steps
input / output convention, where output is only defined on halt
\mu-Recursive Functions: primitive recursive with unbounded search. Given P.R. g : \mathbb{N}^{n+1} \rightarrow \mathbb{N}, f : \mathbb{N}^n \nrightarrow \mathbb{N} with f(x) = \text{min}(\{z \in \mathbb{N} | g(z, x) = 0\}) is \mu-recursive
try z = 0, 1, 2, 3... until there is a z that g(z, x)= 0 works.
where g : \mathbb{N}^{n+1} \rightarrow \mathbb{N} is primitive recursion
Prove TM decidable implies \mu-recursive
Prove \mu-recursive implies TM decidable: simulate \mu-recursion on TM
Unbounded Search: Let L \subseteq \Sigma^* be a language. Then K = \{y \in \Sigma^* | (\exists x \in \Sigma^*)(\langle{x, y}\rangle \in L)\} is unbounded search language of L
decidable: L = \{\langle{t, M, x}\rangle | M(x) \text{ halts in fewer than } t \text{ steps}\}
undecidable: L = \{\langle{M, x}\rangle | (\exists t \in \mathbb{N})(M(x) \text{ halts})\}
PRIME (decidable)
HALT (semidecidable)
DE (semidecidable): reduced to HALT
DIV (\Sigma_2-complete): checking (\exists x \in \mathbb{N})(f(x)\downarrow) is semidecidable, checking (\exists x \in \mathbb{N})(f(x)\uparrow) is beyond semidecidable. With oracle, it becomes semidecidable by unbounded search asking whether f(0)\downarrow, f(1)\downarrow, ...
PDE (\Sigma_3-complete)
UTM (\Pi_4-complete)
\Delta_1: all decidable sets \Sigma_1 = \{K \subseteq \Sigma^* | K \text{ is unbounded search of decidable language}\}: all semidecidable sets \Pi_1 = \{K \subseteq \Sigma^* | (\Sigma^* - K) \in \Sigma_1\}: all co-semidecidable sets \Delta_k = \Sigma_{k} \cap \Pi_{k} \Sigma_{k+1}: all sets obtained from \Pi_k by unbounded search \Pi_{k+1}: all complements of sets in \Sigma_k \emptyset^{(n)} = K^{(n-1)} = \Sigma_n\text{-complete} (with many-one reduction) \emptyset^{(\omega)} = \{\langle{e, n}\rangle | e \in \emptyset^{(n)}\} (any set in arithmetical hierarchy is reducible to \emptyset^{(\omega)}, which captures all arithmetic truth), but you can also apply jump to \emptyset^{(\omega)}...
Note: all higher level language includes lower level languages
Generally:
\Sigma_k: \{z | \exists x_1 \forall x_2 ... (\forall / \exists) x_k P(x_1, ..., x_k, z)\}
\Pi_k: \{z | \forall x_1 \exists x_2 ... (\forall / \exists) x_k P(x_1, ..., x_k, z)\}
All the inclusions \Delta_k \subseteq \Sigma_k, \Pi_k \subseteq \Delta_{k+1} are proper, k \geq 1
Let P_k \in \Sigma_k - \Delta_k, then P_1, P_2, P_3, ... gets strictly more difficult
Halting Set of OTM: a set in which all OTM halt.
jump: the jump A' of A \subseteq \mathbb{N} is the Halting Set for OTMs with oracle A: A' = \{e \in \mathbb{N} | \{e\}^A(e) \downarrow\}
A' is A-semidecidable (but not A-decidable)
for A = \emptyset, A' = K (ordinary HALT)
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