Computational Model: allowed rules for information processing.
While "computer" refer to physical computer, but physical computer can only run one algorithm "the Universal Algorithm: the algorithm that runs all other algorithm", therefore physical computer (a Universal Machine) is a instantiation of computational model.
Computer (Machine, Algorithm): an instantiation of algorithm (like a machine that only solves addition)
Interesting Algorithm:
Should take infinite many combinations of different inputs, and not a lookup table (\Sigma^2 as infinite collection of finite inputs)
Should not ignore any input, read the entire string once
Should be decision problem
Algorithms: contains
a transition system: (a diagram) includes states and the alphabet, can be constructed as a labeled digraph.
an acceptance condition: condition to accept a state
Run(w): a run on the input word w of m characters, is an alternating sequence (directed, labeled path in digraph) of states and letters (p_0, a_1, p_1, a_2, ... p_{m-1}, a_m, p_m) for m \geq 0, where every transitions are valid.
source: p_{i-1} (might not be initial state q_0)
target: q_i
short notation: p_0, p_1, ... p_{m-1}, p_m
trace(label): a_1a_2 ... a_m \in \Sigma^*
Source and Target of a Run: Given a run p_0a_1...a_mp_m, we call p_0 its source, and p_m its target.
computation path: a sequence of q_0, ..., q_n \in Q where q_0 is initial state and \forall i \in \{1, 2, ..., n\} \delta(q_{i-1}, w_i) = r_i
Nondeterministic: you can have more than one distinct runs on the same input
Nondeterministic Transitions: allow both p \xrightarrow{a} q and p \xrightarrow{a} q' (branching)
Valid Transition: p_{i-1} \xrightarrow{a_i} q_i is valid if p_{i-1} can reach q_i by reading alphabet a
Finite State Machine (decides | accepts | computes) a language.
Finite State Machine (FSM): \mathcal{A} = \langle{\mathcal{T}(Q, \Sigma, \delta), \text{acc}(q_0, F)}\rangle
\text{acc}: an acceptance condition: a function takes in a trace output whether the trace starts with q_0 and ends with accepting state q \in F. So it can be written minimally as \text{acc}(q_0, F) for q_0 \in Q, F \subseteq Q.
\mathcal{T}: transition system
q_0 \in Q: initial state
(Acceptance) Language: \mathcal{L}(\mathcal{A}) is all words accepted by automata \mathcal{A}
Complete Transition Systems: for every state p \in q and every character a \in \Sigma, there is at least one state q such that p \xrightarrow{a} q.
Deterministic Transition Systems: for every state p \in q and every character a \in \Sigma, there is at most one state q such that p \xrightarrow{a} q.
Final (Accepting) State: F \in Q indicated by double circle, where a algorithm accepts the input
If a language can be recognized by a DFA, then it's complement can also be recognized by a DFA.
Initial State: indicated by arrow pointing to the state from nowhere
Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA): \mathcal{M} = \langle{\mathcal{T}(Q, \Sigma, \delta), \text{acc}(q_0, F)}\rangle where \mathcal{T} is deterministic and complete
transition relation: \delta \subseteq Q \times \Sigma \times Q
transition function: since deterministic, we can turn transition relation into function \hat{\delta} : Q \times \Sigma \rightarrow Q (\hat{\delta}(p, a) = q \equiv (p, a, q) \in \hat{\delta})
extended transition function: \delta^* : \subseteq Q \times \Sigma^* \rightarrow Q
DFA Definition: \mathcal{M} = \langle{\mathcal{T}(Q, \Sigma, \delta), \text{acc}(q_0, F)}\rangle
Q: finite, non-empty set of states
\Sigma: finite, non-empty set of alphabet
\delta : Q \times \Sigma \rightarrow Q: transition function reading current state and input alphabet, output new state
q_0 \in Q: start state
F \subseteq Q: set of accepting states
Other definitions
// EXERCISE: prove \delta^*(p, xy) = \delta(\delta(p, x), y) for all x, y \in \Sigma^*
Regular (Recognizable) Language: a language L \in \Sigma^* is regular (\exists \text{DFA }\mathcal{M}) \mathcal{L} = L
Trap: a state p in DFA such that (\forall a \in \Sigma) \delta(p, a) = p Sink: a trap that is not final (removing a sink break completeness)
accepting sink state: a sink that is accepting a string
rejecting sink state: a sink that is rejecting a string
Partial (Incomplete) DFAs (PDFAs): DFAs but with sink removal, therefore not complete.
Membership of regular language: grep
, emacs
, regexp
Non-Empty Acceptance Language: model checking
Back Transitions: for a word s_0s_1s_2s_3... if the next symbol s_n does not step forward, instead of creating hard branch, jump to the node reached by a word s_1s_2s_3... and read s_n again.
DFA Membership: Does DFA \mathcal{M} accept input x \in \Sigma^*? (Lemma: DFA Membership solvable in linear time)
Emptiness: Does DFA \mathcal{M} accept no input? (no path from q_0 to any q \in F, tested by DFS or BFS) Finiteness: Does DFA \mathcal{M} accept finitely many input? Universality: Does DFA \mathcal{M} accept all input? State Complexity: Find the state complexity of language. (Because language is an infinite set, usually the input is an arbitrary DFA accepting the language) Solve by constructing the minimal DFA.
(Lemma: DFA Emptiness, Finiteness, Universality solvable in linear time)
// EXERCISE: show how to deal with Finiteness, Universality
// EXERCISE: prove certain DFA only accept even number of a and b
Equivalent DFA: \mathcal{M_1}, \mathcal{M_2} over \Sigma are equivalent if \mathcal{L(\mathcal{M_1})}, \mathcal{L(\mathcal{M_2})} (There exists multiple DFA to recognize the same language)
State Complexity of DFA (\text{stc}(\mathcal{A})): cardinality of states in \mathcal{A} State Complexity of Regular Language L (\text{stc}(L)): size of smallest DFA accepting L
Potential Problem: // QUESTION: why so?
There might be serval DFAs of minimal size. Difficult to compare languages. (not the case: There exists exactly one up to isomorphism minimal DFA)
Larger DFAs for the same language might not have connection to the minimal one. Difficult to obtain smallest machine given arbitrary one. (not the case: larger DFAs are directly related to minimal one via an equivalence relation)
Theorem: For every regular language there is exactly one minimal DFA, unique up to isomorphism.
accessible part of an automata: all states p such that there exists a run from q_0 to p. (non-accessible does not exist in DFA) co-accessible part of an automata: all states p such that there exists a run from p to a final (accepting) state. (non-co-accessible can all be replaced by a single rejecting sink state) trim: if all states are accessible and co-accessible. (cut down not accessible or not co-accessible parts by graph search)
// EXERCISE: try to construct another minimum DFA for even/even. Is it possible? Which states in the larger DFAs correspond to states of minimal one?
a
at k position
L_{a, k} = \{x \in \{a, b\}^* | x_k = a\}
There exists a DFA for k>=0
NDFA can easily solve k<0
// EXERCISE: come up with an upper bound for complexity of L_{a, k} for k \leq 0
Divisibility Problem: Is input number a divisible by k?
check if divisible by 5: v(xa) = 2 * v(x) + a (\mod 5)
pre-computation might be heavy, but outcome DFA is simple
In base 2: having k state is minimal, because smaller machine cannot realize the change of natural number which affect divisibility
In base B: v(x_kx_{k-1}...x_1x_0 = \sum_{i \leq k}x_iB^i
Divisible by m can be tested by a DFA in any base B (build Horner automation with states Q = \{0, 1..., m-1\}, \delta(p, a) = p \cdot B + a (\mod m), with initial and finite state 0, since \delta(q_0, x) = v(x) (\mod m)) // TODO: understand this part // QUESTION
But checking number n with base B=n is different:
Good Papers
S. Kleene
Representation of Events in Nerve Nets and Finite Automata
RAND Corporation, RM 704 (1951).
M. O. Rabin and D. Scott
Finite automata and their decision problems
IBM J. Research and Development, 3 (1959), 114–125.
\mathcal{A}=\langle{Q, \Sigma, \delta, I, F}\rangle: An NFA accepts an input x if and only if there exists a run on \delta with trace x, a source q\in I, and a target q' \in F
Q: finite, non-empty set of states
\Sigma: finite, non-empty set of alphabet
\delta: Q \times \Sigma \times Q: transition function, q_i, a can map to multiple or none q_p.
I: set of initial states (multiple start points)
F: set of final states
Intuition: Each step NFA keep a set of states that it could travel to S'={q' \in Q∣ (\exists q\in Q) (q,a,q')\in \delta} and check if they contain any final states when finish reading.
Powerset construction: For every NFA there is an equivalent DFA.
// TODO: Exercise (NFAs allow for language reversal) // WARNING: you must look at this
nondeterministic finite automata with \epsilon-moves (NFAE): NFA with allow transition without reading any character
Epsilon enumeration: For every NFAE there is an equivalent NFA.
closure properties of NFAE-recognizable languages
// TODO: Exercise (NFAEs allow for concatenation) // WARNING: you must look at this
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